Rural Development Programmes: Appraisal
Shiva Kant Singh
Associate Professor, Department of Geography, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur 273009
Rural development has always been an important issue in all discussions pertaining to economic development, especially of developing countries, throughout the world. In the developing countries including communist societies, rural mass comprise a substantial proportion of the population. The socio-economic disparities between rural and urban areas are widening and creating tremendous pressure on the social and economic fabric of developing Asian economies. These discrepancies necessitates the importance of rural development. The policy makers of the developing economies recognize this importance. They have been implementing a host of programs and measures to achieve rural development objectives. Rural development aims at finding the ways to improve the rural lives by active participation. The outsider is not acquainted with the setting, culture, language and other attributes dominating at the local level. Consequently people themselves have to participate in their sustainable rural development.
Rural development refers to the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas (Moseley, Malcolm J. 2003). Rural development has traditionally centered on the exploitation of land-intensive natural resources such as agriculture and forestry. Changes in global production networks and increased urbanization have changed the character of rural areas. Increasing tourism, niche manufacturers, and recreation have replaced resource extraction and agriculture as dominant economic drivers (Ward, Neil; Brown, David L. 2009). The need for rural communities to approach development from a wider perspective has created more focus on a broad range of development goals rather than merely creating incentive for agricultural or resource based businesses. Education, entrepreneurship, physical infrastructure, and social infrastructure all play an important role in developing rural regions. Rural development is also characterized by its emphasis on locally produced economic development strategies. In contrast to urban regions, rural areas are highly distinctive from one another. For this reason, variety of rural development approaches is used globally. Rural development actions aim mainly the social and economic development of the rural areas.
India is a country of villages. About 60% of the villages have very inadequate socio-economic conditions. Since independence, concerted efforts have been made to ameliorate the living standard of rural masses. So, rural development became integrated concept of growth and poverty elimination and has been of paramount concern in all the consequent five year plans. Rural Development (RD) programmes comprise of following:
· Provision of basic infrastructure facilities in the rural areas e.g. schools, health facilities, roads, drinking water, electrification etc.
· Improving agricultural productivity in the rural areas.
· Provision of social services like health and education for socio-economic development.
· Implementing schemes for the promotion of rural industry increasing agriculture productivity, providing rural employment etc.
· Assistance to individual families and Self Help Groups (SHG) living below poverty line by providing productive resources through credit and subsidy.
Bharat Nirman is a time-bound business plan for action in rural infrastructure. Under Bharat Nirman, action is proposed in the areas of irrigation, rural housing, rural water supply, rural electrification and rural telecommunication connectivity.
To upgrade rural infrastructure, the Government has formulated a proposal for providing the road connections to more than 38,484 villages above 1000 population and all 20,867 habitations above 500 populations in hilly and tribal areas.
To achieve the targets of Bharat Nirman, a target of constructing 1,46,185 kms. of road length was set by 2009. This was expected to benefit 66,802 unconnected eligible habitations in the country. To ensure full farm to market connectivity, it was also proposed to upgrade 1,94,132 kms. of the existing Associated Through Routes. A sum of approximately Rs.48,000 crore was can marked for it.
The main thrust of research and development (R&D) in the roads sector is to build a sustainable road infrastructure comparable to the best roads in the world. The various components of this strategy are improvement in design, modernization of construction techniques, introduction of improved material conforming to latest trends, evolving better and appropriate specifications, encouraging development and use of new technologies etc. The dissemination of these matters is done through the publication of new guidelines, code of conduct, instructions/circulars, compilation of state-of-the-art reports and seminars/ presentations etc. The areas covered are roads, road transport, bridges, traffic and transportation techniques etc. The Department takes the help of various research institutions, academic institutions and universities to implement the schemes. An outlay of Rs.600.00 lakhs has been provided for R&D in 2007-08. Some of the ongoing major schemes are as follows :
· Roads:
o Development of GIS based National Highways information system;
o Guidelines for soil nailing techniques in highway engineering;
o Pilot study on effect of overloading on road infrastructure;
o Investigation on field performance of bituminous mixes with modified binders;
o R&D Studies on performance evaluation of rigid pavements on high density traffic corridors using instrumentation supported by laboratory tests.
In addition to the above, the proposal of IIT, Roorkee for establishment of the Ministry's Chair in it in the area of development of Highway System has also been sanctioned.
· Bridges:
o Creation of complete range of independent testing facility at Central Road Research Institute (CRRI ), New Delhi.
Housing is one of basic requirements for human survival. For a shelterless person, possession of a house brings about a profound social change in his existence, endowing him with an identity, thus integrating him with his immediate social milieu.
The Ministry of Rural Development is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) with a view to providing financial assistance to the rural poor living below poverty line for construction of pucca house. The details of the scheme along with its performance are given below:
The Government of India is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) since the year 1985-86 to provide financial assistance for construction / upgradation of dwelling units to the below poverty line (BPL) rural households belonging to the scheduled castes, scheduled Tribes and freed bonded labourers categories. From the year 1993-94, the scope of the scheme was extended to cover non-Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes rural BPL poor, subject to the condition that the benefits to non-SC/ST would not be more than 40% of the total IAY allocation. The benefits of the Scheme have also been extended to the families of ex-servicemen of the armed and paramilitary forces killed in action, 3% of the Houses are reserved for the rural Below Poverty Line physically and mentally challenged persons, from 2006-07 onward, funds and physical targets under IAY are also being earmarked for BPL minorities in each state.
Under the scheme, financial resources are shared between the centre and the states on a 75:25 basis. Since, reduction of shelterlessness is the primary objective, 75% weightage is given to housing shortage and 25% to the poverty ratios prescribed by Planning Commission for state level allocation. For district level allocation, 75% weightage is given again to housing shortage and 25% to SC/ST population of the concerned districts.
On the basis of allocations made and targets fixed, district Rural development Agency (DRDAs)/Zilla Parishada (ZPs) decide Panchayat-wise number of houses to be constructed under IAY and intimate the same to the concerned Gram Panchayat. Thereafter, the Gram Sabha selects the beneficiaries, restricting its number to the target allotted, from the list of eligible households from the Permanent IAY Waitlists. No further approval of the higher authority is required.
The ceiling on construction assistance under the IAY has been enhanced w.e.f. 1.4.2008, Rs.25, 000/- to Rs.35,000/- per unit in the plain areas and from Rs.27,500/- to Rs.38,500/- in hilly/difficult areas. For upgradation of kutcha house, the financial assistance has also been enhanced from Rs.12,500/- to Rs.15,000/- per unit. In addition, The Reserve Bank of India has been requested by the Ministry of Finance to include IAY houses under the Differential Rate of Interest (DRI) scheme for lending upto Rs.20,000 per unit at an interest rate of 4%.
Further, the dwelling units should invariably be allotted in the name of a female member of the beneficiary household. Alternatively, it can be allotted in the name of both husband and wife. Only in case there is no eligible female member in the family, the house can be allotted in the name of an eligible male member.
The Sanitary latrine and smokeless chullah and proper drainage are required for each IAY house. Latrine could be constructed separate for the IAY house on the site of beneficiary. The construction of the houses is the sole responsibility of the beneficiary. Engagement of contractors is strictly prohibited. No specific type design has been stipulated for an IAY house. Choice of design, technology and materials for construction of an IAY house is the sole discretion of the beneficiaries. About 181.51 lakh houses have been constructed under IAY since inception of the Scheme with an expenditure of Rs.36900.41 crores (upto 31/5/2008).
During 2007-08, the Central allocation for Rural Houseing was Rs.40,322.70 crore. The target for construction/upgradation of IAY houses was 21.27 lakh. Against this target, 19.88 lakh houses were constructed/upgraded by incurring an amount of Rs.5,458.01 crores (including State share).
The Central allocation for 2008-09 under the IAY is Rs.5,645.77 crore for the target of constructing/ upgrading 21.27 lakh IAY houses. Out of this, an amount of Rs.1,694.48 crore has been released as part of first instalment and 85,879 houses have been constructed so far, (upto 31/5/2008).
Under the Irrigation Component of Bharat Nirman, the target of creation of additional irrigation potential of 1 crore hectare in 4 years (2005-06 to 2008-09) is planned to be met largely through expeditious completion of identified ongoing major and medium irrigation projects. Irrigation potential of 42 lakh hectare is planned to be created by expeditiously completing such ongoing major and medium projects.
There is a definite gap between irrigation potential created and the potential utilized. Under Bharat Nirman it is planned to restore and utilize irrigation potential of 10 lakh hectare through implementation of extension, renovation and modernization of schemes along with command area development and water management practices.
There are considerable areas in the country with unutilised ground water resources. Irrigation potential of 28 lakh hectare is planned to be created through ground water development. The remaining target for creation of irrigation potential of 10 lakh hectare is planned to be created by way of minor irrigation schemes using surface flow.10 lakh hectare of irrigation potential is also planned by way of repair, renovation and restoration of water bodies and extension, renovation and modernization of minor irrigation schemes.
Telecom connectivity constitutes an important part of the effort to upgrade the rural infrastructure. Under the Bharat Nirman Programme, it will be ensured that 66,822 revenue villages in the country, which have not yet been provided with a Village Public Telephone (VPT), shall be covered. Out of the above villages, connectivity in 14,183 remote and far flung villages will be provided through digital satellite phone terminals. Assistance for both capital as well as operational expenditure for these VPTs will be met out of the Universal Services Obligation Fund (USOF).
To build rural infrastructure, Bharat Nirman has been launched by the Government of India in 2005 to be implemented in a period of four years from 2005-06 to 2008-09. Rural drinking water is one of the six components of Bharat Nirman. During Bharat Nirman period, 55,067 un-covered and about 3.31 lakh slipped-back habitations are to be covered with provisions of drinking water facilities and 2.17 lakh quality-affected habitations are to be addressed for water quality problem.
While prioritising the redressal of the water quality problem, Arsenic and Fluoride affected habitations have been accorded priority followed by Iron, Salinity, Nitrate and other contaminants. To ensure that habitations once provided with drinking water supply infrastructure do not slip back and face drinking water problem, sustainability of drinking water sources and systems has been accorded high priority. To achieve drinking water security at village/ habitation level, conjunctive use of water i.e. judicious use of rainwater, surface water and ground water is promoted.
To enable the rural community shoulder the responsibility in management, operation and maintenance of water supply systems at village level, decentralized, demand-driven, community-managed approach in the form of Swajaldhara have been adopted. To further strengthen community participation in the drinking water sector for sustainability, National Rural Drinking Water Quality Monitoring & Surveillance programme has been launched in February, 2006 under which 5 persons in each Gram Panchayat are to be trained to carry out regular surveillance of drinking water sources for which 100% financial assistance including water testing kits, are provided.
Ministry of Power has introduced the scheme Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidhyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) in April 2005, which aims at providing electricity in all villages and habitations in four years and provides access to electricity to all rural households. This programme has been brought under the ambit of Bharat Nirman.
Under RGGVY, electricity distribution infrastructure is envisaged to establish Rural Electricity Distribution Backbone (REDB) with at least a 33/11KV sub-station, Village Electrification Infrastructure (VEI) with at least a Distribution Transformer in a village or hamlet, and standalone grids with generation where grid supply is not feasible.
This infrastructure would cater to the requirements of agriculture and other activities in rural areas including irrigation pump sets, small and medium industries, khadi and village industries, cold chains, healthcare and education and IT. This would facilitate overall rural development, employment generation and poverty alleviation.
Subsidy towards capital expenditure to the tune of 90% will be provided, through Rural Electrification Corporation Limited (REC), which is a nodal agency for implementation of the scheme. Electrification of un-electrified Below Poverty Line (BPL) households will be financed with 100% capital subsidy @ Rs.1500/- per connection in all rural habitations.
The Management of Rural Distribution is mandated through franchisees. The services of Central Public Sector Undertakings (CPSU) are available to the States for assisting them in the execution of Rural Electrification projects.
Implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development- External website that opens in a new window, National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)- External website that opens in a new window is the flagship programme of the Government that directly touches lives of the poor and promotes inclusive growth. The Act aims at enhancing livelihood security of households in rural areas of the country by providing at least one hundred days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.
The Act came into force on February 2, 2006 and was implemented in a phased manner. In Phase one it was introduced in 200 most backward districts of the country. It was implemented in an additional 130 districts in Phase Two 2007-2008. As per the initial target, NREGA was to be expanded countrywide in five years. However, in order to bring the whole nation under its safety net and keeping in view the demand, the Scheme was extended to the remaining 274 rural districts of India from April 1, 2008 in Phase III.
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)- External website that opens in a new window is the first ever law internationally, that guarantees wage employment at an unprecedented scale. The primary objective of the Act is augmenting wage employment. Its auxiliary objective is strengthening natural resource management through works that address causes of chronic poverty like drought, deforestation and soil erosion and so encourage sustainable development. The process outcomes include strengthening grassroots processes of democracy and infusing transparency and accountability in governance.
With its rights-based framework and demand driven approach, National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)- External website that opens in a new window marks a paradigm shift from the previous wage programmes. The Act is also a significant vehicle for strengthening decentralization and deepening processes of democracy by giving a pivotal role to the Panchayati Raj Institutions in planning, monitoring and implementation. Unique features of the ACT include, time bound employment guarantee and wage payment within 15 days, incentive-disincentive structure to the State Governments for providing employment as 90 per cent of the cost for employment provided is borne by the Centre or payment of unemployment allowance at their own cost and emphasis on labour intensive works prohibiting the use of contractors and machinery. The Act also mandates 33 percent participation for women. Over the last two years, implementation trends vindicate the basic objective of the Act.
Increasing Employment Opportunities: In 2007-08, 3.39 crore households were provided employment and 143.5 crore person days were generated in 330 districts. In 2008-2009, upto July, 253 crore households have been provided employment and 85.29 crore person days have been generated.
Enhancing Wage Earning and Impact on Minimum Wage: The enhanced wage earnings have lead to strengthening of the livelihood resource base of the rural poor in India; in 2007-2008, more than 68% of funds utilised were in the form of wages paid to the labourers. In 2008-2009, 73% of the funds have been utilized in the form of wages.
Increasing Outreach to the Poor: Self targeting in nature, the Programme has high works participation of marginalized groups like SC/ST (57%), women (43%) in 2007-2008. In 2008-2009, upto July, the participation is SC/ST (54%) and women (49%), strengthening Natural Resource Base of Rural India: In 2007-08, 17.88 lakh works have been undertaken, of which 49% were related to water conservation. In 2008-2009 (upto July), 16.88 lakh works have been undertaken, of which 49% were related to water conservation.
Financial Inclusion of the Poor: The Central government has been encouraging the state governments to make wage payment through bank and post office accounts of wage seekers. Thus far, 2.9 crore (upto July '08) NREGA bank and post office accounts have been opened to disburse wages. The Ministry is also encouraging the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)- External website that opens in a new window workers to obtain insurance under Jan Shri Bima Yojana.
Initial evidence through independent studies indicates enhancement of agricultural productivity (through water harvesting, check dams, ground water recharging, improve moisture content, check in soil erosion and micro-irrigation), stemming of distress migration, increased access to markets and services through rural connectivity works, supplementing household incomes, Increase in women workforce participation ratios and the regeneration of natural resources.
The vision of the Ministry is enabling NREGA become a transformative vehicle of empowering local communities to enhance their livelihood security. The Ministry has taken several steps to ensure the Scheme is implemented effectively like encouraging decentralized participatory management, improving delivery systems and public accountability.
The Rozgar Jagrookta Puruskar award has been introduced to recognize outstanding Contributions by Civil society Organizations at State, District, Block and Gram Panchayat levels to generate awareness about provisions and entitlements and ensuring compliance with implementing processes.
Building Capacity to Implement a Demand Driven Scheme
To strengthen the capacity and give priority to the competencies required for effective planning, work execution, public disclosure and social audits the Ministry has been conducting training for NREGA functionaries, Thus far, 6.2 lakh PRI functionaries and 4.82 lakh vigilance and monitoring committees have been trained (upto July'08). The Central Government is also providing technical support in key areas of communication, training, work planning, IT, social audits and fund management at all levels of implementation to the state governments.
Using IT for Reaching Out and Inclusion
Web enabled Management Information System (MIS) is one of the largest data base rural households through their engagement in National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)- External website that opens in a new window. MIS places all critical parameters such as shelf of projects, sanctioned works, wage payments, number of days of employment provided and works under execution on line for easy public access. The data engineered software has been designed for cross verification of records and generation of alerts to support proactive response by management.
Evolving Processes for Transparency and Public Accountability
Monitoring and Evaluation: The Ministry has set up a comprehensive monitoring system. This year, 260 National Level Monitors and Area Officers have undertaken field visits to each of the 330 Phase I and Phase II districts at least once. For effective monitoring of the projects 100% verification of the works at the Block level, 10% at the District level and 2% at the State level inspections need to be ensured.
Road Map for Further Strengthening of NREGA
Setting up of the Task force on Convergence: In order to optimize the multiplier effects of National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)- External website that opens in a new window, the Ministry has set up a Task Force to look at the possibility of convergence of programmes like National Horticulture Mission, Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana, Bharat Nirman, Watershed Development with NREGA. These convergence efforts will add value to NREGA, works and aid in creating durable efforts and also enable planned and coordinated public investments in rural areas.
Problems /Impediments in the path of Rural Development are Manifold which are enumerated below :
1. People Related
(i) Traditional way of thinking
(ii) Poor understanding
(iii) Low level of education to understand developmental efforts and new technology
(iv) Deprived psychology and scientific orientation
(v) Lack of confidence
(vi) Poor awareness
(vii) Low level of education
(viii)Existence of unfelt needs
(ix) Personal ego
2. Agricultural Related
(i) Lack of expected awareness, knowledge, skill and attitude
(ii) Unavailability of inputs
(iii) Poor marketing facility
(iv) Insufficient extension staff and services
(v) Multidimensional tasks to extension personnel
(vi) Small size of land holding
(vii) Division of land
(viii)Unwillingness to work and stay in rural areas
3. Infrastructure Related
Poor infrastructure facilities like -
(i) Water
(ii) Electricity
(iii) Transport
(iv) Educational institutions
(v) Communication
(vi) Health
(vii) Employment
(viii)Storage facility etc.
4. Economic Related
(i) Unfavourable economic condition to adopt high cost technology
(ii) High cost of inputs
(iii) Under privileged rural industries
5. Social and Cultural Problems
(i) Leadership among the hands of inactive and incompetent people
(ii) Self interest of leaders
(iii) Biased political will
6. Administrative Problems
(i) Political interference
(ii) Lack of motivation and interest
(iii) Unwillingness to work in villages
(iv) Improper utilization of budget
(v) No proper monitoring of programs and lack in their implementation.
7. Leadership Related Problems
To conclude, it is strongly suggested that the concerned departments be made aware of these impediments. They must come forward to trying these schemes in a more forceful manner.
REFERENCES:
1. Moseley, Malcolm J. (2003). Rural development : principles and practice (1. publ. ed.). London [u.a.]: SAGE. p. 5.
2. Ward, Neil; Brown, David L. (1 December 2009). "Placing the Rural in Regional Development". Regional Studies 43 (10): 1237–1244.
3. Singh, S.K. (2002): Rural Development Policies and Porgrammes, Northern Book Centre, New Delhi.
4. Dube, S.C. (1960) : India’s Changing Villages : Human Factors in Community Development, Routledge and Kegan Paul Lts. London.
5. Dutt, R.C. (1990) : “Rural Development : Some Reflections”,, Yojana, Vol. 34, No.14 and 15, pp. 5-8.
6. Mathur, Y.B. (1985) : Rural Development in India, 1885-1985, National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad.
Received on 05.09.2014
Revised on 20.09.2014
Accepted on 28.09.2014
© A&V Publication all right reserved
Research J. Humanities and Social Sciences. 5(3): July-September, 2014, 330-335